Heraclitus of Ephesus, fl. c.480 BC, is one of the most fascinating and enigmatic of the early Greek philosophers. Over 100 of his aphorisms survive in different sources, but their compressed and cryptic style makes interpretation difficult. Heraclitus introduces into philosophy a new self-consciousness about method and language and a new self-critical interest in the faculties used to attain knowledge. He was the first Greek to develop a theory of the human soul; he praised its creative resources and spoke of the importance of self-exploration.
When he spoke of the logos that is common to all and said that the universe is ruled by logos, Heraclitus was probably speaking of the ordering of the shifting, changing world that is imposed by human beings in their discourse and thought. He always urged that close attention be given to the polarities and concealed structures embodied in language. His famous claim that an individual can and cannot step into the same river twice reveals an interest in criteria of unity and identity: even though all material constituents have undergone a change, it is still, in a sense, the same river. Preoccupied with change, he declared that fire is the central element of the universe, and he postulated a world with no beginning and no end. Heraclitus's influence can be seen in Stoicism and, most recently, in the style and thought of Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche.
Martha C. Nussbaum
Bibliography: Kahn, C.H., ed., The Art and Thought of Heraclitus (1981); Kirk, G. S., ed., Heraclitus: the Cosmic Fragments (1970); Robinson, T.M., ed., Heraclitus: Fragments (1987).
Last modified on: Friday, October 17, 1997.